Already in antiquity different properties of iron and steel were known and distinguished by different words. Scandinavian iron-making in bowl-hearths started independently of European technology, the product being soft ferritic iron, transformable into steel by cementation. The next development stage was the bloomery, capable of producing soft iron, natural steel and cast-iron. Further improvements were forge-welding, alloying with nickel, lamination, pattern-welding and hardening. Strong functional demands on ancient smith's products are likely, but not always on grave-goods, which also may be deformed deliberately. Systematic determinations of hardness and structure in sword-blades are suggested. See also 20-32. -- AATA