Lowell was America's first great industrial city. Its remarkable economic growth from 1821 to 1880 was the result of sound engineering practices and intelligent business decisions. Engineers harnessed the Merrimack River to provide power for 10 large textile manufacturing companies and a major machine shop. They also built railroads and locomotives which connected the city with distant markets and suppliers. Scientific experimentation was closely linked with technology in Lowell and produced important advances in textile chemistry, hydraulic theory, and turbine design. James B. Francis, Lowell's most famous engineer, made significant improvements in the design and operation of the city's complex canal system in order to satisfy demands for more industrial power. Despite his work, however, steam became increasingly important as a prime mover in Lowell's mills and shops; by 1880, steam power had surpassed water power. Lowell's great achievements in mechanical and civil engineering were largely responsible for its pacesetting position in a young industrial nation.